Devanagari

Devanagari

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Devanāgarī
देवनागरी
DevanagariLetters.png
Devanāgarī script (vowels top three rows, consonants below)
Script type
Time period
7th century CE to present[1][2]
Directionleft-to-right 
Region India 120+ languages use Devanāgarī script

 Fiji as script for Fiji Hindi
 South Africa as protected language (script)[3]

   Nepal
LanguagesApabhramshaAwadhiBhiliBhojpuriBoroBrajChhattisgarhiDogriGujarātīGarhwaliHaryanviHindustani (Hindi), KashmiriKonkaniKumaoniMagahiMaithiliMarathiMarwariMundariNagpuriNewariNepaliPāliPahariPrakritRajasthaniSanskritSantaliSaraikiSherpaSindhiSurjapuri, and many more.
Related scripts
Parent systems
Sister systems
Nandināgarī
Kaithi
Gujarātī
Moḍī
ISO 15924
ISO 15924Deva (315), ​Devanagari (Nagari)
Unicode
Unicode alias
Devanagari
U+0900–U+097F Devanagari,
U+A8E0–U+A8FF Devanagari Extended,
U+11B00–11B5F Devanagari Extended-A,
U+1CD0–U+1CFF Vedic Extensions
  1. Jump up to:a b c A Semitic origin for the Brāhmī script is not universally accepted.
 This article contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. For the distinction between [ ]/ / and  , see IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters.

Devanāgarī or Devanagari (/ˌdvəˈnɑːɡəri/ DAY-və-NAH-gə-reeदेवनागरीIASTDevanāgarī, Sanskrit pronunciation: [deːʋɐˈnaːɡɐriː]), also called Nāgarī (SanskritनागरीNāgarī),[8] is a left-to-right abugida (a type of segmental writing system),[9] based on the ancient Brāhmī script,[10] used in the northern Indian subcontinent. It is one of the official scripts of the Indian Republic. It was developed and in regular use by the 7th century CE.[8][11] The Devanāgarī script, composed of 47 primary characters, including 14 vowels and 33 consonants, is the fourth most widely adopted writing system in the world,[12] being used for over 120 languages.[13]

The orthography of this script reflects the pronunciation of the language.[13] Unlike the Latin alphabet, the script has no concept of letter case.[14] It is written from left to right, has a strong preference for symmetrical rounded shapes within squared outlines, and is recognisable by a horizontal line, known as a shirorekhā, that runs along the top of full letters.[9] In a cursory look, the Devanāgarī script appears different from other Indic scripts such as Bengali-Assamese, or Gurmukhi, but a closer examination reveals they are very similar except for angles and structural emphasis.[9]

Among the languages using it as a primary or secondary script are MarathiPāḷiSanskrit,[15] Hindi,[16] BoroNepaliSherpaPrakritApabhramshaAwadhiBhojpuriBraj Bhasha,[17] ChhattisgarhiHaryanviMagahiNagpuriRajasthaniBhiliDogriKashmiriKonkaniSindhiNepal BhasaMundari, and Santali.[13] The Devanāgarī script is closely related to the Nandināgarī script commonly found in numerous ancient manuscripts of South India,[18][19] and it is distantly related to a number of southeast Asian scripts.[13]

Etymology[edit]

Devanāgarī is a compound of deva (देव) and nāgarī (नागरी). Deva means "heavenly", "divine", or "deity".[20] Nāgarī comes from nagara (नगर), a Sanskrit word meaning "town" or "city".[21] Hence, devanāgarī can be translated as "of the city of the gods".[22]

The use of the name devanāgarī emerged from the older term nāgarī.[23] According to Fischer, Nāgarī emerged in the northwest Indian subcontinent around 633 CE, was fully developed by the 11th century CE, and was one of the major scripts used for the Sanskrit literature.[23]

History[edit]

Devanāgarī is part of the Brahmic family of scripts of IndiaNepalTibet, and Southeast Asia.[24][23] It is a descendant of the 3rd century BCE Brāhmī script, which evolved into the Nagari script which in turn gave birth to Devanāgarī and Nandināgarī. Devanāgarī has been widely adopted across India and Nepal to write SanskritMarathiHindiCentral Indo-Aryan languagesKonkaniBoro, and various Nepalese languages.

Some of the earliest epigraphic evidence attesting to the developing Sanskrit Nāgarī script in ancient India is from the 1st to 4th century CE inscriptions discovered in Gujarat.[10] Variants of script called nāgarī, recognisably close to Devanāgarī, are first attested from the 1st century CE Rudradaman inscriptions in Sanskrit, while the modern standardised form of Devanāgarī was in use by about 1000 CE.[11][25] Medieval inscriptions suggest widespread diffusion of Nāgarī-related scripts, with biscripts presenting local script along with the adoption of Nāgarī scripts. For example, the mid 8th-century Pattadakal pillar in Karnataka has text in both Siddha Matrika script, and an early Telugu-Kannada script; while, the Kangra Jawalamukhi inscription in Himachal Pradesh is written in both Sharada and Devanāgarī scripts.[26]

The Nāgarī script was in regular use by the 7th century CE, and it was fully developed by about the end of first millennium.[8][11] The use of Sanskrit in Nāgarī script in medieval India is attested by numerous pillar and cave-temple inscriptions, including the 11th-century Udayagiri inscriptions in Madhya Pradesh,[27] and an inscribed brick found in Uttar Pradesh, dated to be from 1217 CE, which is now held at the British Museum.[28] The script's prototypes and related versions have been discovered with ancient relics outside India, in places such as Sri LankaMyanmar and Indonesia. In East Asia, the Siddhaṃ matrika script (considered as the closest precursor to Nāgarī) was in use by Buddhists.[15][29] Nāgarī has been the primus inter pares of the Indic scripts.[15] It has long been used traditionally by religiously educated people in South Asia to record and transmit information, existing throughout the land in parallel with a wide variety of local scripts (such as MoḍīKaithi, and Mahajani) used for administration, commerce, and other daily uses.

Sharada remained in parallel use in Kashmir. An early version of Devanāgarī is visible in the Kutila inscription of Bareilly dated to VS 1049 (992 CE), which demonstrates the emergence of the horizontal bar to group letters belonging to a word.[1] One of the oldest surviving Sanskrit texts from the early post-Maurya period consists of 1,413 Nāgarī pages of a commentary by Patanjali, with a composition date of about 150 BCE, the surviving copy transcribed about 14th century CE.[30]

Evolution from Brahmi to Gupta, and to Devanagari[31]
k-kh-g-gh-ṅ-c-ch-j-jh-ñ-ṭ-ṭh-ḍ-ḍh-ṇ-t-th-d-dh-n-p-ph-b-bh-m-y-r-l-v-ś-ṣ-s-h-
Brahmi𑀓𑀔𑀕𑀖𑀗𑀘𑀙𑀚𑀛𑀜𑀝𑀞𑀟𑀠𑀡𑀢𑀣𑀤𑀥𑀦𑀧𑀨𑀩𑀪𑀫𑀬𑀭𑀮𑀯𑀰𑀱𑀲𑀳
GuptaGupta allahabad k.svgGupta allahabad kh.svgGupta allahabad g.svgGupta allahabad gh.svgGupta allahabad ng.svgGupta allahabad c.svgGupta allahabad ch.svgGupta allahabad j.svgGupta ashoka jh.svgGupta allahabad ny.svgGupta allahabad tt.svgGupta allahabad tth.svgGupta allahabad dd.svgGupta allahabad ddh.svgGupta allahabad nn.svgGupta allahabad t.svgGupta allahabad th.svgGupta allahabad d.svgGupta allahabad dh.svgGupta allahabad n.svgGupta allahabad p.svgGupta allahabad ph.svgGupta allahabad b.svgGupta allahabad bh.svgGupta allahabad m.svgGupta allahabad y.svgGupta allahabad r.svgGupta allahabad l.svgGupta allahabad v.svgGupta allahabad sh.svgGupta allahabad ss.svgGupta allahabad s.svgGupta allahabad h.svg
Devanagari

East Asia[edit]

In the 7th century, under the rule of Songtsen Gampo of the Tibetan EmpireThonmi Sambhota was sent to Nepal to open marriage negotiations with a Nepali princess and to find a writing system suitable for the Tibetan language. He then invented the Tibetan script based on the Nāgarī used in Kashmir. He added 6 new characters for sounds that did not exist in Sanskrit.[32]

Other scripts closely related to Nāgarī (such as Siddhaṃ) were introduced throughout East and Southeast Asia from the 7th to the 10th centuries CE: notably in Indonesia, Vietnam, and Japan.[33][34]

Most of the Southeast Asian scripts have roots in Dravidian scripts, but a few found in south-central regions of Java and isolated parts of southeast Asia resemble Devanāgarī or its prototypes. The Kawi script in particular is similar to the Devanāgarī in many respects, though the morphology of the script has local changes. The earliest inscriptions in the Devanāgarī-like scripts are from around the 10th century CE, with many more between the 11th and 14th centuries.[35][36]

Some of the old-Devanāgarī inscriptions are found in Hindu temples of Java, such as the Prambanan temple.[37] The Ligor and the Kalasan inscriptions of central Java, dated to the 8th century, are also in the Nāgarī script of north India. According to the epigraphist and Asian Studies scholar Lawrence Briggs, these may be related to the 9th century copper plate inscription of Devapaladeva (Bengal) which is also in early Devanāgarī script.[38] The term kawi in Kawi script is a loan word from kāvya (poetry). According to anthropologists and Asian studies scholars John Norman Miksic and Goh Geok Yian, the 8th century version of early Nāgarī or Devanāgarī script was adopted in Java, Bali, and Khmer around the 8th–9th centuries, as evidenced by the many contemporaneous inscriptions of this period.[39]

Letters[edit]

The letter order of Devanāgarī, like nearly all Brāhmic scripts, is based on phonetic principles that consider both the manner and place of articulation of the consonants and vowels they represent. This arrangement is usually referred to as the varṇamālā ("garland of letters").[41] The format of Devanāgarī for Sanskrit serves as the prototype for its application, with minor variations or additions, to other languages.[42]

Vowels[edit]

The vowels and their arrangement are:[43]

Independent formIASTISOIPAAs diacritic with  (Barakhadi)Independent formIASTISOIPAAs diacritic with  (Barakhadi)
kaṇṭhya
(Guttural)
a[ɐ]ā[]पा
tālavya
(Palatal)
i[i]पिī[]पी
oṣṭhya
(Labial)
u[u]पु 6ū[]पू 6
mūrdhanya
(Retroflex)
[]पृ 4r̥̄[r̩ː]पॄ
dantya
(Dental)
 4[]पॢ 4, 5l̥̄[l̩ː]पॣ
kaṇṭhatālavya
(Palatoguttural)
eē[]पेai[ɑj]पै
kaṇṭhoṣṭhya
(Labioguttural)
oō[]पोau[ɑw]पौ
अं /  1,2[◌̃]पंअः /  1[h]पः
ॲ / ऍ 7ê[æ]पॅ 7ô[ɒ]पॉ
  1. Arranged with the vowels are two consonantal diacritics, the final nasal anusvāra   and the final fricative visarga   (called अं aṃ and अः aḥ). Masica (1991:146) notes of the anusvāra in Sanskrit that "there is some controversy as to whether it represents a homorganic nasal stop ..., a nasalised vowel, a nasalised semivowel, or all these according to context". The visarga represents post-vocalic voiceless glottal fricative [h], in Sanskrit an allophone of s, or less commonly r, usually in word-final position. Some traditions of recitation append an echo of the vowel after the breath:[44] इः [ihi]Masica (1991:146) considers the visarga along with letters  ṅa and  ña for the "largely predictable" velar and palatal nasals to be examples of "phonetic overkill in the system".
  2. Another diacritic is the candrabindu/anunāsika  अँSalomon (2003:76–77) describes it as a "more emphatic form" of the anusvāra, "sometimes ... used to mark a true [vowel] nasalization". In a new Indo-Aryan language such as Hindi the distinction is formal: the candrabindu indicates vowel nasalisation[45] while the anusvār indicates a homorganic nasal preceding another consonant:[46] e.g., हँसी [ɦə̃si] "laughter", गंगा [ɡəŋɡɑ] "the Ganges". When an akṣara has a vowel diacritic above the top line, that leaves no room for the candra ("moon") stroke candrabindu, which is dispensed with in favour of the lone dot:[47] हूँ [ɦũ] "am", but हैं [ɦɛ̃] "are". Some writers and typesetters dispense with the "moon" stroke altogether, using only the dot in all situations.[48]
  3. The avagraha ( अऽ) (usually transliterated with an apostrophe) is a Sanskrit punctuation mark for the elision of a vowel in sandhiएकोऽयम् eko'yam ( ← एकस् ekas + अयम् ayam) ("this one"). An original long vowel lost to coalescence is sometimes marked with a double avagrahaसदाऽऽत्मा sadā'tmā ( ← सदा sadā + आत्मा ātmā) "always, the self".[49] In Hindi, Snell (2000:77) states that its "main function is to show that a vowel is sustained in a cry or a shout": आईऽऽऽ! āīīī!. In Madhyadeshi languages like Bhojpuri, Awadhi, Maithili, etc. which have "quite a number of verbal forms that end in that inherent vowel",[50] the avagraha is used to mark the non-elision of word-final inherent a, which otherwise is a modern orthographic convention: बइठऽ baiṭha "sit" versus बइठ baiṭh
  4. The syllabic consonants   , and   are specific to Sanskrit and not included in the varṇamālā of other languages. The sound represented by  has also been lost in the modern languages, and its pronunciation now ranges from [ɾɪ] (Hindi) to [ɾu] (Marathi).
  5.  is not an actual phoneme of Sanskrit, but rather a graphic convention included among the vowels in order to maintain the symmetry of short–long pairs of letters.[42]
  6. There are non-regular formations of रु ruरू , and हृ hṛ.
  7. There are two more vowels in Marathi and , that respectively represent [æ], similar to the RP English pronunciation of ⟨a⟩ in act, and [ɒ], similar to the RP pronunciation of ⟨o⟩ in cot. These vowels are sometimes used in Hindi too, as in डॉलर dôlar ("dollar").[51] IAST transliteration is not defined. In ISO 15919, the transliteration is ê and ô, respectively.

Consonants[edit]

The table below shows the consonant letters (in combination with inherent vowel a) and their arrangement. To the right of the Devanāgarī letter it shows the Latin script transliteration using International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration,[52] and the phonetic value (IPA) in Hindi.[53][54]

Phonetics →sparśa
(Occlusive)
anunāsika
(Nasal)
antastha
(Approximant)
ūṣman/saṃgharṣī
(Fricative)
Voicing →aghoṣasaghoṣaaghoṣasaghoṣa
Aspiration →alpaprāṇamahāprāṇaalpaprāṇamahāprāṇaalpaprāṇamahāprāṇa
kaṇṭhya
(Velars)
ka
[k]
kha
[]
ga
[ɡ]
gha
[ɡʱ]
ṅa
[ŋ]
ha
[ɦ]
tālavya
(Palatal)
ca
[]
cha
[tʃʰ]
ja
[]
jha
[dʒʱ]
ña
[ɲ]
ya
[j]
śa
[ʃ]
mūrdhanya
(Retroflex)
ṭa
[ʈ]
ṭha
[ʈʰ]
ḍa
[ɖ]
ḍha
[ɖʱ]
ṇa
[ɳ]
ra
[r]
ṣa
[ʂ]
dantya
(Dental)
ta
[]
tha
[t̪ʰ]
da
[]
dha
[d̪ʱ]
na
[n]
la
[l]
sa
[s]
oṣṭhya
(Labial)
pa
[p]
pha
[pʰ]
ba
[b]
bha
[bʱ]
ma
[m]
dantoṣṭhya
(Labiodental)
va
[ʋ]
  • Beyond the Sanskritic set, new shapes have rarely been formulated. Masica (1991:146) offers the following, "In any case, according to some, all possible sounds had already been described and provided for in this system, as Sanskrit was the original and perfect language. Hence it was difficult to provide for or even to conceive other sounds, unknown to the phoneticians of Sanskrit". Where foreign borrowings and internal developments did inevitably accrue and arise in New Indo-Aryan languages, they have been ignored in writing, or dealt through means such as diacritics and ligatures (ignored in recitation).
    • The most prolific diacritic has been the subscript dot (nuqtāHindi uses it for the PersianArabic and English sounds क़ qa /q/ख़ xa /x/ग़ ġa /ɣ/ज़ za /z/झ़ zha /ʒ/, and फ़ fa /f/, and for the allophonic developments ड़ ṛa /ɽ/ and ढ़ ṛha /ɽʱ/.[56] (Although  ḻa /ɻ/ could also exist, it is not used in Hindi.)
    • Sindhi's and Saraiki's implosives are accommodated with a line attached below:  [ɠə] [ʄə] [ɗə]ॿ [ɓə].
    • Aspirated sonorants may be represented as conjuncts/ligatures with  haम्ह mhaन्ह nhaण्ह ṇhaव्ह vhaल्ह lhaळ्ह ḷhaर्ह rha.
    • Masica (1991:147) notes Marwari as using  for ḍa [ɗə] (while  represents [ɽə]).

For a list of all 297 (33×9) possible Sanskrit consonant-short vowel syllables see Āryabhaṭa.

Vowel diacritics[edit]

Vowel diacritics on 

Table: Consonants with vowel diacritics. Vowels in their independent form on the top and in their corresponding dependent form (vowel sign) combined with the consonant 'k' on the bottom. 'ka' is without any added vowel sign, where the vowel 'a' is inherent.

aāêôiīuūeēaioōaur̥̄l̥̄
अंअः
kakikukekaikokaukr̥kr̥̄kl̥kl̥̄kaṁkaḥk
काकॅकॉकिकीकुकूकॆकेकैकॊकोकौकृकॄकॢकॣकंकःक्

A vowel combines with a consonant in their diacritic form. For example, the vowel  (ā) combines with the consonant क् (k) to form the syllabic letter का (), with halant (cancel sign) removed and added vowel sign which is indicated by diacritics. The vowel  (a) combines with the consonant क् (k) to form  (ka) with halant removed. But the diacritic series of  (ka, kha, ga, gha, respectively) is without any added vowel sign, as the vowel  (a) is inherent.

The Jnanesvari is a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita, dated to 1290 CE. It is in written in Marathi using the Devanāgarī script.

The combinations of all consonants and vowels, each in alphabetical order, are laid out in the bārākhaḍī (बाराखडी) or bārahkhaṛī (बारहखड़ी) table. In the following barakhadi table, the transliteration of each combination will appear on mouseover:

Barakhadi table
aāiīuūeaioauaṁaḥ
अंअः
k-काकिकीकुकूकेकैकोकौकंकः
kh-खाखिखीखुखूखेखैखोखौखंखः
g-गागिगीगुगूगेगैगोगौगंगः
gh-घाघिघीघुघूघेघैघोघौघंघः
ṅ-ङाङिङीङुङूङेङैङोङौङंङः
c-चाचिचीचुचूचेचैचोचौचंचः
ch-छाछिछीछुछूछेछैछोछौछंछः
j-जाजिजीजुजूजेजैजोजौजंजः
jh-झाझिझीझुझूझेझैझोझौझंझः
ñ-ञाञिञीञुञूञेञैञोञौञंञः
ṭ-टाटिटीटुटूटेटैटोटौटंटः
ṭh-ठाठिठीठुठूठेठैठोठौठंठः
ḍ-डाडिडीडुडूडेडैडोडौडंडः
ḍh-ढाढिढीढुढूढेढैढोढौढंढः
ṇ-णाणिणीणुणूणेणैणोणौणंणः
t-तातितीतुतूतेतैतोतौतंतः
th-थाथिथीथुथूथेथैथोथौथंथः
d-दादिदीदुदूदेदैदोदौदंदः
dh-धाधिधीधुधूधेधैधोधौधंधः
n-नानिनीनुनूनेनैनोनौनंनः
p-पापिपीपुपूपेपैपोपौपंपः
ph-फाफिफीफुफूफेफैफोफौफंफः
b-बाबिबीबुबूबेबैबोबौबंबः
bh-भाभिभीभुभूभेभैभोभौभंभः
m-मामिमीमुमूमेमैमोमौमंमः
y-यायियीयुयूयेयैयोयौयंयः
r-रारिरीरुरूरेरैरोरौरंरः
l-लालिलीलुलूलेलैलोलौलंलः
v-वाविवीवुवूवेवैवोवौवंवः
ś-शाशिशीशुशूशेशैशोशौशंशः
ṣ-षाषिषीषुषूषेषैषोषौषंषः
s-सासिसीसुसूसेसैसोसौसंसः
h-हाहिहीहुहूहेहैहोहौहंहः

Old forms[edit]

A mid-10th century Sanskrit land grant for a college, written in Devanāgarī, and discovered on a stone buried in north Karnataka. Parts of the inscription are written in Canarese script.[57]

The following letter variants are also in use, particularly in older texts:[58]

Letter variants
StandardAncient
Devanagari a.svgDevanagari a old.svg
Devanagari jh.svgDevanagari jh old.svg
Devanagari nn.svgDevanagari Ṇ (old).svg
Devanagari l old.svgDevanagari l.svg

Conjunct consonants[edit]

As mentioned, successive consonants lacking a vowel in between them may physically join as a conjunct consonant or ligature. When Devanāgarī is used for writing languages other than Sanskrit, conjuncts are used mostly with Sanskrit words and loan words. Native words typically use the basic consonant and native speakers know to suppress the vowel when it is conventional to do so. For example, the native Hindi word karnā is written करना (ka-ra-nā).[59] The government of these clusters ranges from widely to narrowly applicable rules, with special exceptions within. While standardised for the most part, there are certain variations in clustering, of which the Unicode used on this page is just one scheme. The following are a number of rules:

Complete made by CB
All forms of 
  • 24 out of the 36 consonants contain a vertical right stroke ( kha gha ṇa etc.). As first or middle fragments/members of a cluster (when letters are to be written as half pronounced), they lose that stroke. e.g. त् +  = त्व tvaण् +  = ण्ढ ṇḍhaस् +  = स्थ stha. In Unicode, as in Hindi, these consonants without their vertical stems are called "half forms".[60]  śa appears as a different, simple ribbon-shaped fragment preceding  va na ca la, and  ra, causing these second members to be shifted down and reduced in size. Thus श्व śvaश्न śnaश्च śca श्ल ślaश्र śra, and शृ śri.
  •  ra as a first member takes the form of a curved upward dash above the final character or its ā- diacritic. e.g. र्व rvaर्वा rvāर्स्प rspaर्स्पा rspā. As a final member with  ṭa ṭha ḍa ḍhaड़ ṛa cha, it is two lines together below the character pointed downwards. Thus ट्र ṭraठ्र ṭhraड्र ḍraढ्र ḍhraड़्र ṛraछ्र chra. Elsewhere as a final member it is a diagonal stroke extending leftwards and down. e.g. क्र ग्र भ्र ब्र ta is shifted up to make the conjunct त्र tra.
  • As first members, remaining characters lacking vertical strokes such as  da and  ha may have their second member, reduced in size and lacking its horizontal stroke, placed underneath.  ka cha, and  pha shorten their right hooks and join them directly to the following member.
  • The conjuncts for kṣa and jña are not clearly derived from the letters making up their components. The conjunct for kṣa is क्ष (क् + ) and for jña it is ज्ञ (ज् + ).

Accent marks[edit]

The pitch accent of Vedic Sanskrit is written with various symbols depending on shakha. In the Rigvedaanudātta is written with a bar below the line (◌॒), svarita with a stroke above the line (◌॑) while udātta is unmarked.

Punctuation[edit]

The end of a sentence or half-verse may be marked with the "" symbol (called a daṇḍa, meaning "bar", or called a pūrṇa virām, meaning "full stop/pause"). The end of a full verse may be marked with a double-daṇḍa, a "" symbol. A comma (called an alpa virām, meaning "short stop/pause") is used to denote a natural pause in speech.[61][62] Punctuation marks of Western origin, such as the colonsemicolonexclamation markdash, and question mark have been in use in Devanāgarī script since at least the 1900s,[citation needed] matching their use in European languages.[63]

Numerals[edit]

Devanāgarī digits
0123456789

Fonts[edit]

A variety of Unicode fonts are in use for Devanāgarī. These include Akshar,[64] Annapurna,[65] Arial,[66] CDAC-Gist Surekh,[67] CDAC-Gist Yogesh,[68] Chandas,[69] Gargi,[70] Gurumaa,[71] Jaipur,[72] Jana,[73] Kalimati,[74] Kanjirowa,[75] Lohit Devanagari, Mangal,[76] Kokila,[77] Raghu,[78] Sanskrit2003,[79] Santipur OT,[80] Siddhanta, and Thyaka.[81]

The form of Devanāgarī fonts vary with function. According to Harvard College for Sanskrit studies:[80]

Uttara [companion to Chandas] is the best in terms of ligatures but, because it is designed for Vedic as well, requires so much vertical space that it is not well suited for the "user interface font" (though an excellent choice for the "original field" font). Santipur OT is a beautiful font reflecting a very early [medieval era] typesetting style for Devanagari. Sanskrit 2003[82] is a good all-around font and has more ligatures than most fonts, though students will probably find the spacing of the CDAC-Gist Surekh[67] font makes for quicker comprehension and reading.

The Google Fonts project has a number of Unicode fonts for Devanāgarī in a variety of typefaces in serif, sans-serif, display and handwriting categories.

Transliteration[edit]

Indic scripts share common features, and along with Devanāgarī, all major Indic scripts have been historically used to preserve Vedic and post-Vedic Sanskrit texts.

There are several methods of Romanisation or transliteration from Devanāgarī to the Roman script.[83]

Hunterian system[edit]

The Hunterian system is the national system of romanisation in India, officially adopted by the Government of India.[84][85][86]

ISO 15919[edit]

A standard transliteration convention was codified in the ISO 15919 standard of 2001. It uses diacritics to map the much larger set of Brāhmic graphemes to the Latin script. The Devanāgarī-specific portion is nearly identical to the academic standard for Sanskrit, IAST.[87]

IAST[edit]

The International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration (IAST) is the academic standard for the romanisation of Sanskrit. IAST is the de facto standard used in printed publications, like books, magazines, and electronic texts with Unicode fonts. It is based on a standard established by the Congress of Orientalists at Athens in 1912. The ISO 15919 standard of 2001 codified the transliteration convention to include an expanded standard for sister scripts of Devanāgarī.[87]

The National Library at Kolkata romanisation, intended for the romanisation of all Indic scripts, is an extension of IAST.

Harvard-Kyoto[edit]

Compared to IAST, Harvard-Kyoto looks much simpler. It does not contain all the diacritic marks that IAST contains. It was designed to simplify the task of putting large amount of Sanskrit textual material into machine readable form, and the inventors stated that it reduces the effort needed in transliteration of Sanskrit texts on the keyboard.[88] This makes typing in Harvard-Kyoto much easier than IAST. Harvard-Kyoto uses capital letters that can be difficult to read in the middle of words.

ITRANS[edit]

ITRANS is a lossless transliteration scheme of Devanāgarī into ASCII that is widely used on Usenet. It is an extension of the Harvard-Kyoto scheme. In ITRANS, the word devanāgarī is written "devanaagarii" or "devanAgarI". ITRANS is associated with an application of the same name that enables typesetting in Indic scripts. The user inputs in Roman letters and the ITRANS pre-processor translates the Roman letters into Devanāgarī (or other Indic languages). The latest version of ITRANS is version 5.30 released in July 2001. It is similar to Velthuis system and was created by Avinash Chopde to help print various Indic scripts with personal computers.[88]

Velthuis[edit]

The disadvantage of the above ASCII schemes is case-sensitivity, implying that transliterated names may not be capitalised. This difficulty is avoided with the system developed in 1996 by Frans Velthuis for TeX, loosely based on IAST, in which case is irrelevant.

ALA-LC Romanisation[edit]

ALA-LC[89] romanisation is a transliteration scheme approved by the Library of Congress and the American Library Association, and widely used in North American libraries. Transliteration tables are based on languages, so there is a table for Hindi,[90] one for Sanskrit and Prakrit,[91] etc.

WX[edit]

WX is a Roman transliteration scheme for Indian languages, widely used among the natural language processing community in India. It originated at IIT Kanpur for computational processing of Indian languages. The salient features of this transliteration scheme are as follows.

  • Every consonant and every vowel has a single mapping into Roman. Hence it is a prefix code, advantageous from computation point of view.
  • Lower-case letters are used for unaspirated consonants and short vowels, while capital letters are used for aspirated consonants and long vowels. While the retroflex stops are mapped to 't, T, d, D, N', the dentals are mapped to 'w, W, x, X, n'. Hence the name 'WX', a reminder of this idiosyncratic mapping.

Encodings[edit]

ISCII[edit]

ISCII is an 8-bit encoding. The lower 128 codepoints are plain ASCII, the upper 128 codepoints are ISCII-specific.

It has been designed for representing not only Devanāgarī but also various other Indic scripts as well as a Latin-based script with diacritic marks used for transliteration of the Indic scripts.

ISCII has largely been superseded by Unicode, which has, however, attempted to preserve the ISCII layout for its Indic language blocks.

Unicode[edit]

The Unicode Standard defines four blocks for Devanāgarī: Devanagari (U+0900–U+097F), Devanagari Extended (U+A8E0–U+A8FF), Devanagari Extended-A (U+11B00–11B5F), and Vedic Extensions (U+1CD0–U+1CFF).

Devanagari[1]
Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)
 0123456789ABCDEF
U+090x
U+091x
U+092x
U+093xि
U+094x
U+095x
U+096x
U+097xॿ
Notes
1.^ As of Unicode version 15.0
Devanagari Extended[1]
Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)
 0123456789ABCDEF
U+A8Ex
U+A8Fx
Notes
1.^ As of Unicode version 15.0
Devanagari Extended-A[1][2]
Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)
 0123456789ABCDEF
U+11B0x𑬀𑬁𑬂𑬃𑬄𑬅𑬆𑬇𑬈𑬉
U+11B1x
U+11B2x
U+11B3x
U+11B4x
U+11B5x
Notes
1.^ As of Unicode version 15.0
2.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points
Vedic Extensions[1][2]
Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)
 0123456789ABCDEF
U+1CDx
U+1CEx
U+1CFx ᳵ  ᳶ 
Notes
1.^ As of Unicode version 15.0
2.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points

Devanāgarī keyboard layouts[edit]

Introduction to Inscript Key board

InScript layout[edit]

InScript is the standard keyboard layout for Devanāgarī as standardized by the Government of India. It is inbuilt in all modern major operating systemsMicrosoft Windows supports the InScript layout (using the Mangal font), which can be used to input unicode Devanāgarī characters. InScript is also available in some touchscreen mobile phones.

Devanāgarī INSCRIPT bilingual keyboard layout

Typewriter[edit]

This layout was used on manual typewriters when computers were not available or were uncommon. For backward compatibility some typing tools like Indic IME still provide this layout.

Phonetic[edit]

Devanāgarī Phonetic Keyboard Layout
One can use ULS "लिप्यंतरण" (Transliteration) or "इनस्क्रिप्ट" (Inscript) typing options to search or edit Devanagari-script articles as shown in this video clip example. CC instructions are available for British English.

Such tools work on phonetic transliteration. The user writes in the Latin alphabet and the IME automatically converts it into Devanāgarī. Some popular phonetic typing tools are Akruti, Baraha IME and Google IME.

The Mac OS X operating system includes two different keyboard layouts for Devanāgarī: one resembles the INSCRIPT/KDE Linux, while the other is a phonetic layout called "Devanāgarī QWERTY".

Any one of the Unicode fonts input systems is fine for the Indic language Wikipedia and other wikiprojects, including Hindi, Bhojpuri, Marathi, and Nepali Wikipedia. While some people use InScript, the majority uses either Google phonetic transliteration or the input facility Universal Language Selector provided on Wikipedia. On Indic language wikiprojects, the phonetic facility provided initially was java-based, and was later supported by Narayam extension for phonetic input facility. Currently Indic language Wiki projects are supported by Universal Language Selector (ULS), that offers both phonetic keyboard (Aksharantaran, Marathi: अक्षरांतरण, Hindi: लिप्यंतरण, बोलनागरी) and InScript keyboard (Marathi: मराठी लिपी).

The Ubuntu Linux operating system supports several keyboard layouts for Devanāgarī, including Harvard-Kyoto, WX notation, Bolanagari and phonetic. The 'remington' typing method in Ubuntu IBUS is similar to the Krutidev typing method, popular in Rajasthan. The 'itrans' method is useful for those who know English (and the English keyboard) well but are not familiar with typing in Devanāgarī.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

Citations[edit]

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  2. ^ Salomon, Richard (1998). Indian epigraphy: a guide to the study of inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan languages. South Asia research. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 39–41. ISBN 978-0-19-509984-3.
  3. ^ "Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 - Chapter 1: Founding Provisions | South African Government"www.gov.za.
  4. ^ Salomon 1996, p. 378.
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  7. ^ Masica, Colin (1993). The Indo-Aryan languages. p. 143.
  8. Jump up to:a b c Kuiper, Kathleen (2010). The Culture of India. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 83. ISBN 978-1615301492.
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  10. Jump up to:a b Rudradaman's inscription from 1st through 4th century CE found in Gujarat, IndiaGazetteer of the Bombay Presidency. Stanford University Archives. pp. 30–45) particularly Devanāgarī inscription on Jayadaman's coins (pages 33–34).
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  23. Jump up to:a b c Fischer, Steven Roger (2004). A History of Writing. Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1-86189-167-9Archived from the original on 7 March 2020. Retrieved 15 November 2015(p. 110) "... an early branch of this, as of the fourth century CE, was the Gupta script, Brahmi's first main daughter. ... The Gupta alphabet became the ancestor of most Indic scripts (usually through later Devanagari). ... Beginning around AD 600, Gupta inspired the important Nagari, Sarada, Tibetan and Pāḷi scripts. Nagari, of India's northwest, first appeared around AD 633. Once fully developed in the eleventh century, Nagari had become Devanagari, or "heavenly Nagari", since it was now the main vehicle, out of several, for Sanskrit literature."
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    Original manuscript, dates in Saka Samvat, and uncertainties associated with it: Kielhorn, F., ed. (1880), Mahabhasya of Patanjali, Bombay, Government central Book depôt
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  81. ^ Thyaka Archived 9 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine South Asia Language Resource, University of Chicago (2009)
  82. ^ Devanagari font Archived 13 November 2014 at the Wayback Machine Unicode Standard 8.0 (2015)
  83. ^ Sharma, Daya Nand (1972). Transliteration into Roman and Devanagari of the languages of the Indian group. Survey of India, 1972. Archived from the original on 3 June 2016. Retrieved 15 November 2015... With the passage of time there has emerged a practically uniform system of transliteration of Devanagari and allied alphabets. Nevertheless, no single system of Romanisation has yet developed ...
  84. ^ United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names, United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (2007), Technical reference manual for the standardisation of geographical names, United Nations Publications, 2007, ISBN 978-92-1-161500-5archived from the original on 24 April 2016, retrieved 15 November 2015... ISO 15919 ... There is no evidence of the use of the system either in India or in international cartographic products ... The Hunterian system is the actually used national system of romanisation in India ...
  85. ^ United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (1955), United Nations Regional Cartographic Conference for Asia and the Far East, Volume 2, United Nations, 1955, archived from the original on 27 April 2016, retrieved 15 November 2015... In India the Hunterian system is used, whereby every sound in the local language is uniformly represented by a certain letter in the Roman alphabet ...
  86. ^ National Library (India) (1960), Indian scientific & technical publications, exhibition 1960: a bibliography, Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, Government of India, 1960, archived from the original on 27 April 2016, retrieved 15 November 2015... The Hunterian system of transliteration, which has international acceptance, has been used ...
  87. Jump up to:a b Script Source (2009). "Devanagari IAST conventions". United States: SIL International. Archived from the original on 14 November 2015.
  88. Jump up to:a b Wujastyk, D. (1996). "Transliteration of Devanāgarī". Archived from the original on 6 June 2007.
  89. ^ "LOC.gov". LOC.gov. Archived from the original on 6 November 2020. Retrieved 13 June 2011.
  90. ^ "0001.eps" (PDF)Library of CongressArchived (PDF) from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 13 June 2011.
  91. ^ "LOC.gov" (PDF)Library of CongressArchived (PDF) from the original on 13 April 2018. Retrieved 13 June 2011.

General sources[edit]

Census and catalogues of manuscripts in Devanāgarī[edit]

Thousands of manuscripts of ancient and medieval era Sanskrit texts in Devanāgarī have been discovered since the 19th century. Major catalogues and census include:

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